The effective planning of a product’s manufacture is critical to both its cost and delivery time. Recognition of this importance has motivated over 30 years of research into automated planning systems and generated a large literature covering many different manufacturing technologies. But complete automation has proved difficult in most manufacturing domains. However, as manufacturing hardware has evolved to become more automated and computer aided design software has been developed to support the creation of complex geometries; planning the physical fabrication of a virtual model is still a task that occupies thousands of engineers around the world, every day. We intend for this paper to be useful to newcomers in this field, who are interested in placing the current state-of-the-art in context and identifying open research problems across a range of manufacturing processes. This paper discusses the capabilities, limitations and challenges of automated planning for four manufacturing technologies: machining, sheet metal bending, injection molding, and mechanical assembly. Rather than presenting an exhaustive survey of research in these areas, we focus on identifying the characteristics of the planning task in different domains, current research directions, and open problems in each area. Our key observations are as following. First, the incorporation of AI techniques, geometric modeling, computational geometry, optimization, and physics-based modeling has led to significant advances in the automated planning area. Second, commercial tools are available to aid the manufacturing planning process in most manufacturing domains. Third, manufacturing planning is computationally challenging and still requires significant human input in most manufacturing domains. Fourth, advancement in several emerging areas has the potential to create, in the near future, a step-change in the capabilities of automated planning systems. Finally, we believe that deploying fully automated planning systems can lead to significant productivity benefits.
Issue Section:
Research Papers
References
1.
Descotte
, Y.
, and Latombe
, J. C.
, 1981, “GARI: A Problem Solver That Plans How to Machine Mechanical Parts
,” IJCAI’81 Proceedings of the 7th International Joint Conference on AI
.2.
Capponi
, V.
, and Villeneuve
, F.
, 2009, “Towards a Five-Axis Machining CAPP System: A Set-Up Planning Tool Solving Accessibility Constraints
,” ASME J. Comput. Inf. Sci. Eng.
, 9
(4
), pp. 14
.3.
Martinet
, A.
, Soler
, C.
, Holzschuch
, N.
, and Sillion
, F. X.
, 2006, “Accurate Detection of Symmetries in 3D Shapes
,” ACM Trans. Graph.
, 25
(2
), pp. 439
–464
.4.
Choi
, Y.-K.
, and Banerjee
, A.
, 2007, “Tool Path Generation and Tolerance Analysis for Free-Form Surfaces
,” Int. J. Mach. Tools Manuf.
, 47
(3–4
), pp. 689
–696
.5.
Wang
, N.
, and Tang
, K.
, 2007, “Automatic Generation of Gouge-Free and Angular-Velocity-Compliant Five-Axis Toolpath
,” CAD
, 39
(10
), pp. 841
–852
.6.
Sundararajan
, V.
, and Wright
, P. K.
, 2008, “Applications of Software Engineering to Manufacturing Process Planning
,” ASME J. Comput. Inf. Sci. Eng.
, 8
(3
), p. 034001
.7.
D’Souza
, R.
, Wright
, P. K.
, and Séquin
, C.
, 2002, “Handling Tool Holder Collision in Optimal Tool Sequence Selection for 2.5-D Pocket Machining
,” ASME J. Comput. Inf. Sci. Eng.
, 2
(4
), pp. 245
–356
.8.
Arya
, S.
, Cheng
, S. W.
, and Mount
, D. M.
, 2001, “Approximation Algorithms for Multiple-Tool Milling
,” IJCGA
, 11
(3
), pp. 339
–372
.9.
Sunila
, V. B.
, and Pande
, S. S.
, 2008, “Automatic Recognition of Features From Freeform Surface CAD Models
,” CAD
, 40
(4
), pp. 502
–517
.10.
Li
, S.
, and Shah
, J. J.
, 2007, “Recognition of User-Defined Turning Features for Mill/Turn Parts
,” ASME J. Comput. Inf. Sci. Eng.
, 7
, pp. 225
–234
.11.
Pehlivan
, S.
, and Summers
, J. D.
, 2008, “A Review of Computer-Aided Fixture Design With Respect to Information Support Requirements
,” Int. J. Prod. Res.
, 46
(4
), pp. 929
–947
.12.
Boyle
, I. M.
, Rong
, K.
, and Brown
, D. C.
, 2006, “CAFixD: A Case-Based Reasoning Fixture Design Method. Framework and Indexing Mechanisms
,” ASME J. Comput. Inf. Sci. Eng.
, 6
(1
), pp. 1
–90
.13.
Rong
, K.
, 2003, “Geometric and Kinetic Model Based Computer-aided Fixture Design Verification
,” ASME J. Comput. Inf. Sci. Eng.
, 3
(3
), pp. 177
–272
.14.
Sundararajan
, V.
, and Wright
, P. K.
, 2007, “CyberCut: A Coordinated Pipeline of Design, Process Planning and Manufacture
,” Process Planning And Scheduling for Distributed Manufacturing
, Springer Series in Advanced Manufacturing
.15.
Ahn
, S.
, Sundararajan
, V.
, Smith
, C.
, Kannan
, B.
, D’Souza
, R.
, Sun
, G.
, Mohole
, A.
, and Wright
, P.
, 2001, “CyberCut: An Internet-based CAD/CAM System
,” ASME J. Comput. Inf. Sci. Eng.
, 1
(1
), pp. 52
–60
.16.
Shea
, K.
, Ertelt
, C.
, Gmeiner
, T.
, and Ameri
, F.
, 2010, Design-to-Fabrication Automation for the Cognitive Machine Shop
,” Adv. Eng. Inf.
, 24
(3
), pp. 251
–268
.17.
Shah
, J. J.
, Anderson
, D.
, Kim
, Y. S.
, and Joshi
, S.
, 2001, “A Discourse on Geometric Feature Recognition From CAD Models
,” ASME J. Comput. Inf. Sci. Eng.
, 1
(1
), pp. 41
–51
.18.
Nesic
, N.
, and Miljkovic
, Z.
, 2008, “A Review of Automated Feature Recognition With Rule-Based Pattern Recognition
,” Comput. Ind.
, 59
(4
), pp. 321
–337
.19.
Gupta
, S. K.
, and Nau
, D. S.
, 1995, “Systematic Approach to Analyzing the Manufacturability of Machined Parts
,” CAD
, 27
(5
), pp. 323
–342
.20.
Xu
, X. W.
, and Newman
, S. T.
, 2006, “Making CNC Machine Tools More Open, Interoperable and Intelligent—A Review of the Technologies
”, Comput. Ind.
, 57
(2
), pp. 141
–152
.21.
Waiyagan
, K.
, and Bohez
, E. L. J.
, 2009, “Intelligent Feature Based Process Planning for Five-Axis Mill-Turn Parts
,” Comput. Ind.
, 60
(5
), pp. 296
–316
.22.
Lasemi
, A.
, Xue
, D.
, and Gu
, P.
, 2010, “Recent Development in CNC Machining of Freeform Surfaces: A State-of-the-Art Review
,” CAD
, 42
(7
), pp. 641
–654
.23.
Petrzelka
, J. E.
, and Frank
, M. C.
, 2010, “Advanced Process Planning for Subtractive Rapid Prototyping
,” Rapid Prototyping J.
, 16
(3
), pp. 216
–224
.24.
Frank
, M. C.
, Wysk
, R. A.
, and Joshi
, S. B.
, 2004, “Rapid Planning for CNC Machining—A New Approach to Rapid Prototyping
,” J. Manuf. Syst.
, 23
(3
), pp. 242
–255
.25.
Inui
, M.
, and Ohta
, A.
, 2007, “Using a GPU to Accelerate Die and Mold Fabrication
”, IEEE Comput. Graphics Appl.
, 27
(1
), pp. 82
–88
.26.
Frank
, M. C.
, Wysk
, R. A.
, and Joshi
, S. B
, 2006, “Determining Setup Orientations from the Visibility of Slice Geometry for Rapid CNC Machining
,” ASME J. Manuf. Sci. Eng.
, 128
(1
), pp. 228
–238
.27.
Michopoulos
, J. G.
, Farhat
, C.
, and Fish
, J.
, 2005, “Modeling and Simulation of Multiphysics Systems
,” ASME J. Comput. Inf. Sci. Eng.
5
, pp. 198
–213
.28.
Raksiri
, C.
, and Parnichkun
, M.
, 2004, “Geometric and Force Errors Compensation in a 3-Axis CNC Milling Machine
,” Int. J. Mach. Tools Manuf.
, 44
(12–13
), pp. 1283
–1291
.29.
Holroyd
, G.
, 2007, “The Modelling and Correction of Ball-Screw Geometric, Thermal and Load Errors on CNC Machine Tools
,” Doctoral thesis
, The University of Huddersfield
, UK
.30.
Chen
, L. L.
, Chou
, S. Y.
, and Woo
, T. C.
, 1993, “Parting Directions for Mould and Die Design
,” CAD
, 25
(12
), pp. 762
–768
.31.
Chen
, L. L.
, Chou
, S. Y.
, and Woo
, T. C.
, 1995, “Partial Visibility for Selecting a Parting Direction in Mould and Die Design
,” J. Manuf. Syst.
, 14
(5
), pp. 319
–330
.32.
Ravi
, B.
, and Srinivasan
, M. N.
, 1990, “Decision Criteria for Computer-Aided Parting Surface Design
,” CAD
, 22
(1
), pp. 11
–18
.33.
Wong
, T.
, Tan
, S. T.
, and Sze
, W. S.
, 1998, “Parting Line Formation by Slicing a 3D CAD Model
,” Eng. Comput.
, 14
(4
), pp. 330
–343
.34.
Hui
, K. C.
, and Tan
, S. T.
, 1992, “Mould Design With Sweep Operations-A Heuristic Search Approach
,” CAD
, 24
(2
), pp. 81
–91
.35.
Majhi
, J.
, Gupta
, P.
, and Janardan
, R.
, 1996, “Computing a Flattest, Undercut-Free Parting Line for a Convex Polyhedron, With Application to Mold Design
,” Applied Computational Geometry Towards Geometric Engineering, Lect. Notes Comput. Sci.
, 1148
, pp. 109
–120
.36.
Ahn
, H. K.
, Berg
, M.
, Bose
, P.
, Cheng
, S. W.
, Halperin
, D.
, Matoušek
, J.
, and Schwarzkopf
, O.
, 2002, “Separating an Object From Its Cast
,” CAD
, 34
(8
), pp. 547
–559
.37.
Elber
, G.
, Chen
, X.
, and Cohen
, E.
, 2005, “Mold Accessibility via Gauss Map Analysis
,” ASME J. Comput. Inf. Sci. Eng.
, 5
(2
), pp. 79
–85
.38.
McMains
, S.
, and Chen
, X.
, 2006, “Finding Undercut-Free Parting Directions for Polygons with Curved Edges
,” ASME J. Comput. Inf. Sci. Eng.
, 6
(1
), pp. 60
–68
.39.
Kharderkar
, R.
, Burton
, G.
, and McMains
, S.
, 2006, “Finding Feasible Mold Parting Directions Using Graphics Hardware
,” CAD
, 38
(4
), pp. 327
–341
.40.
Priyadarshi
, A. K.
, and Gupta
, S. K.
, 2006, “Finding Mold-Piece Regions Using Computer Graphics Hardware
,” Geometric Modeling and Processing, Lecture Notes in Computer Science
, Vol., 4077
, pp. 655
–662
.41.
Yin
, Z.
, Ding
, H.
, and Xiong
, Y.
, 2001, “Virtual Prototyping of Mold Design: Geometric Mouldability Analysis for Near-Net-Shape Manufactured Parts by Feature Recognition and Geometric Reasoning
,” CAD
, 33
(2
), pp. 137
–154
.42.
Fu
, M. W.
, Fuh
, J. Y. H.
, and Nee
, A. Y. C.
, 1999, “Undercut Feature Recognition in an Injection Mould Design System
,” CAD
, 31
(12
), pp. 777
–790
.43.
Lu
, H. Y.
, and Lee
, W. B.
, 2000, “Detection of Interference Elements and Release Directions in Die-cast and Injection-moulded Components
,” Proc. IMechE, Part B: J Eng. Manuf.
, 214
(6
), pp. 431
–441
.44.
Chen
, Y.
, and Rosen
, D. W.
, 2002, “A Region Based Method to Automated Design of Multi-Piece Molds with Application to Rapid Tooling
,” ASME J. Comput. Inf. Sci. Eng.
, 2
(2
), pp. 86
–97
.45.
Banerjee
, A. G.
, and Gupta
, S. K.
, 2007, “Geometric Algorithms for Automated Design of Side Actions in Injection Molding of Complex Parts
,” CAD
, 39
(10
), pp. 882
–897
.46.
Shin
, K. H.
, and Lee
, K.
, 1993, “Design of Side Cores of Injection Mold from Automatic Detection of Interference Faces
,” J. Des. Manuf.
, 3
(4
), pp. 225
–236
.47.
Ye
, X. G.
, Fuh
, J. Y. H.
, and Lee
, K. S.
, 2004, “Automatic Undercut Feature Recognition for Side Core Design of Injection Molds
,” ASME J. Mech. Des.
, 126
, pp. 519
–526
.48.
Chen
, Y.
, and Rosen
, D. W.
, 2003, “A Reverse Glue Approach to Automated Construction of Multi-Piece Molds
,” ASME J. Comput. Inf. Sci. Eng.
, 3
(3
), pp. 219
–230
.49.
Priyadarshi
, A. K.
, and Gupta
, S. K.
, 2004, “Geometric Algorithms for Automated Design of Multi-Piece Permanent Molds
,” CAD
, 36
(3
), pp. 241
–260
.50.
Dhaliwal
, S.
, Gupta
, S. K.
, Huang
, J.
, and Priyadarshi
, A.
, 2003, “Algorithms for Computing Global Accessibility Cones
,” J. Comput. Inf. Sci. Eng.
, 3
(3
), pp. 200
–209
.51.
Huang
, J.
, Gupta
, S. K.
, and Stoppel
, K.
, 2003, “Generating Sacrificial Multi-Piece Molds Using Accessibility Driven Spatial Partitioning
,” CAD
, 35
(3
), pp. 1147
–1160
.52.
Kumar
, M.
, and Gupta
, S. K.
, 2002, “Automated Design of Multi-Stage Molds for Manufacturing Multi-Material Objects
,” ASME J. Mech. Des.
, 124
(3
), pp. 399
–407
.53.
Li
, X.
, and Gupta
, S. K.
, 2004, “Geometric Algorithms for Automated Design of Rotary-Platen Multi-Shot Molds
,” CAD
, 36
(12
), pp. 1171
–1187
.54.
Yin
, Z. P.
, Ding
, H.
, and Xiong
, Y. L.
, 2006, “Geometric Reasoning on Molding Planning for Multishot Mold Design
,” ASME J. Comput. Inf. Sci. Eng.
, 6
(3
), pp. 241
–251
.55.
Priyadarshi
, A. K.
, and Gupta
, S. K.
, 2009, “Algorithms for Generating Multi-Stage Molding Plans for Articulated Assemblies
,” Rob. Comput. Integr. Manuf.
, 32
(3/4
), pp. 350
–365
.56.
Zhai
, M.
, Lam
, Y. C.
, and Au
, C. K.
, 2006, “Runner Sizing and Weld Line Positioning for Plastics Injection Moulding With Multiple Gates
,” Eng. Comput.
, 21
(3
), pp. 218
–224
.57.
Zhai
, M.
, Lam
, Y. C.
, and Au
, C. K.
, 2009, “Runner Sizing in Multiple Cavity Injection Mould by Non-Dominated Sorting Genetic Algorithm
,” Eng. Comput.
, 25
, pp. 237
–245
.58.
Li
, C. G.
, and Li
, C. L.
, 2008, “Plastic Injection Mould Cooling System Design by the Configuration Space Method
,” CAD
, 40
(3
), pp. 334
–349
.59.
Hassan
, H.
, Regnier
, N.
, Pujos
, C.
, and Defaye
, G.
, 2009, “3D Study on the Effect of Process Parameters on the Cooling of Polymer by Injection Molding
,” J. Appl. Polym. Sci.
, 114
(5
), pp. 2901
–2914
.60.
Rhee
, B.-O.
, Park
, C.-S.
, Chang
, H.-K.
, Jung
, H.-W.
, and Lee
, Y.-J.
, 2010, “Automatic Generation of Optimum Cooling Circuit for Large Injection Molded Parts
,” Int. J. Precis. Eng. Manuf.
, 11
(3
), pp. 439
–444
.61.
Adamowicz
, M.
, and Albano
, A.
, 1976, “Nesting Two Dimensional Shapes in Rectangular Modules
,” CAD
, 8
(1
), pp. 27
–33
.62.
Dowsland
, K.
, and Dowsland
, W.
, 1995, “Solution Approaches to Irregular Nesting Problems
,” Eur. J. Oper. Res.
, 84
(3
), pp. 506
–521
.63.
Smith
, J. S.
, Cohen
, P. H.
, Davis
, J. W.
, and Irani
, S. A.
, 1992, “Process Plan Generation for Sheet Metal Parts Using an Integrated Feature-Based Expert System Approach
,” Int. J. Prod. Res.
, 30
(5
), pp. 1175
–1190
.64.
Cser
, L.
, Geiger
, M.
, Greska
, W.
, and Hoffman
, M.
, 1991, “Three Kinds of Case-Based Learning in Sheet Metal Manufacturing
,” Comput. Ind.
, 17
, pp. 195
–206
.65.
Nnaji
, B. O.
, Kang
, T. S.
, Yeh
, S. C.
, and Chen
, J. P.
, 1991, “Feature Reasoning for Sheet Metal Components
,” Int. J. Prod. Res.
, 29
(9
), pp. 1867
–1896
.66.
Doflou
, J. R.
, Vancza
, J.
, and Aerens
, R.
,2005, “Computer Aided Process Planning for Sheet Metal Bending
,” Comput. Ind.
, 56
(7
), pp. 747
–771
.67.
Gupta, S. K. Bourne
, D. A.
, Kim
, K.
, and Krishnan
, S. S.
, 1998, “Automated Process Planning for Robotic Sheet Metal Bending Press Brakes
,” J. Manuf. Syst.
, 17
(5
), pp. 338
–360
.68.
Márkusa
, A.
, Vánczaa
, J.
, and Kovácsb
, A.
, 2002, “Constraint-based Process Planning in Sheet Metal Bending
,” CIRP Ann—Manuf. Technol.
, 51
(1
), pp. 425
–428
.69.
Ashley
, S.
, 1997, “Intelligent Sheet Metal Bending
,” Mech. Eng.
, 119
(1
), 62
–64
.70.
De Vin
, L. J.
, De Vries
, J.
, Streppel
, A. H.
, Klassen
, E. J. W.
, and Kals
, H. J. J.
, 1994, “The Generation of Bending Sequences in a CAPP System for Sheet Metal Components
,” J. Mater. Process. Technol.
, 41
, pp. 331
–339
.71.
Kannan
, T. R.
, and Shunmugam
, M. S.
, 2008, “Planner for Sheet Metal Components to Obtain Optimal Bend Sequence Using a Genetic Algorithm
,” Int. J. Comput. Integr. Manuf.
, 21
(7
), pp. 790
–802
.72.
Radin
, B.
, and Shiptalni
, M.
, 1996, “Two-Stage Algorithm for Determination of the Bending Sequence in Sheet Products
,” Proceedings of the ASME Design Automation Conference
, Irvine, CA, USA
, pp. 1
–12
.73.
Alva
, U.
, and Gupta
, S. K.
, 2001, “Automated Design of Sheet Metal Punches for Bending Multiple Parts in a Single Setup
,” Rob. Comput. Integr. Manuf.
, 17
, pp. 33
–47
.74.
Gupta
, S. K.
, and Bourne
, D. A.
, 1999, “Sheet Metal Bending: Generating Shared Setups
,” ASME J. Manuf. Sci. Eng.
, 121
, pp. 689
–694
.75.
De Fazio
, T.
, and Whitney
, D.
, 1987, “Simplified Generation of all Mechanical Assembly Sequences
,” IEEE J. Robot. Autom.
, 3
(6
), pp. 640
–658
.76.
Wilson
, R. H.
, and Latombe
, J. C.
, 1994, “Geometric Reasoning About Mechanical Assembly
,” Artif. Intell.
, 71
, pp. 371
–396
.77.
Woo
, T. C.
, and Dutta
, D.
, 1991, “Automatic Disassembly and Total Ordering in Three Dimensions
,” ASME J. Eng. Ind.
, 113
(1
), pp. 207
–213
.78.
Beasley
, D.
, and Martin
, R. R.
, 1993, “Disassembly Sequences for Objects Built From Unit Cubes
,” CAD
, 25
(12
), pp. 751
–761
.79.
Milner
, J. M.
, Graves
, S. C.
, and Whitney
, D. E.
, 1994, “Using Simulated Annealing to Select Least-Cost Assembly Sequences
,” IIEE Robotics and Automation Conference
, San Diego, CA
.80.
Homem de Mello
, L. S.
, and Sanderson
, A. C.
, 1991, “A Correct and Complete Algorithm for the Generation of Mechanical Assembly Sequences
,” IEEE Trans. Rob. Autom.
, 7
(2
), pp. 228
–240
.81.
Wilson
, R. H.
, 1998, “Geometric Reasoning About Assembly Tools
,” Artif. Intell.
, 98
(1–2
), pp. 237
–279
.82.
Gupta
, S. K.
, Paredis
, C. J.
, Sinha
, R.
, and Brown
, P. F.
, 2001, “Intelligent Assembly Modeling and Simulation
,” Assem. Autom.
, 21
(3
), pp. 215
–235
.83.
Wise
, K. D.
, and Bowyer
, A.
, 2000, “A Survey of Global Configuration-Space Mapping Techniques for a Single Robot in a Static Environment
,” Int. J. Rob. Res.
, 19
(8
), pp. 762
–779
.84.
Sung
, R.
, Corney
, J. R.
, and Clark
, D.
, 2001, “Automatic Assembly Feature Recognition and Disassembly Sequence Generation
,” ASME J. Comput. Inf. Sci. Eng.
, 1
(4
) pp. 281
–388
.85.
Lambert
, A. J. D.
, 2003, “Disassembly Sequencing: A Survey
,” Int. J. Prod. Res.
, 41
(16
), pp. 3721
–3759
.86.
Reichl
, M.
, Dünger
, R.
, Schiewe
, A.
, Klemmer
, T.
, Hartleb
, M.
, Lux
, C.
, and Fröhlich
, B.
, 2010, “GPU-based Ray Tracing of Dynamic Scenes
,” J. Virtual Reality Broadcast.
, 7
(1
).87.
Rodriguez
, A.
, Bourne
, D.
, Mason
, M.
, Rossano
, G.
, and Wang
, J.
“Failure Detection in Assembly: Force Signature Analysis
,” IEEE Conference on Automation Science and Engineering
(CASE 2010), August 21–24, Toronto, Canada
.88.
Turkiyyah
, G. M.
, Karam
, W. B.
, Ajami
, Z.
, and Nasri
, A.
, 2011, “Mesh Cutting During Real-Time Physical Simulation
,” CAD
, 43
(7
), pp. 809
–819
.89.
Glotzer
, S.
, Kim
, S.
, Cummings
, P. T.
, Deshmukh
, A.
, Head-Gordon
, M.
, Karniadakis
, G.
, Petzold
, L.
, Sagui
, C.
, and Shinozuka
, M.
, 2009, International Assessment of Research and Development in Simulation-Based Engineering And Science
, World Technology Evaluation Center
, Maryland
.Copyright © 2011
by American Society of Mechanical Engineers
You do not currently have access to this content.
